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Solar System (solar + system)
Selected AbstractsLimits of life in MgCl2 -containing environments: chaotropicity defines the windowENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Issue 3 2007John E. Hallsworth Summary The biosphere of planet Earth is delineated by physico-chemical conditions that are too harsh for, or inconsistent with, life processes and maintenance of the structure and function of biomolecules. To define the window of life on Earth (and perhaps gain insights into the limits that life could tolerate elsewhere), and hence understand some of the most unusual biological activities that operate at such extremes, it is necessary to understand the causes and cellular basis of systems failure beyond these windows. Because water plays such a central role in biomolecules and bioprocesses, its availability, properties and behaviour are among the key life-limiting parameters. Saline waters dominate the Earth, with the oceans holding 96.5% of the planet's water. Saline groundwater, inland seas or saltwater lakes hold another 1%, a quantity that exceeds the world's available freshwater. About one quarter of Earth's land mass is underlain by salt, often more than 100 m thick. Evaporite deposits contain hypersaline waters within and between their salt crystals, and even contain large subterranean salt lakes, and therefore represent significant microbial habitats. Salts have a major impact on the nature and extent of the biosphere, because solutes radically influence water's availability (water activity) and exert other activities that also affect biological systems (e.g. ionic, kosmotropic, chaotropic and those that affect cell turgor), and as a consequence can be major stressors of cellular systems. Despite the stressor effects of salts, hypersaline environments can be heavily populated with salt-tolerant or -dependent microbes, the halophiles. The most common salt in hypersaline environments is NaCl, but many evaporite deposits and brines are also rich in other salts, including MgCl2 (several hundred million tonnes of bischofite, MgCl2·6H2O, occur in one formation alone). Magnesium (Mg) is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater and is ubiquitous in the Earth's crust, and throughout the Solar System, where it exists in association with a variety of anions. Magnesium chloride is exceptionally soluble in water, so can achieve high concentrations (> 5 M) in brines. However, while NaCl-dominated hypersaline environments are habitats for a rich variety of salt-adapted microbes, there are contradictory indications of life in MgCl2 -rich environments. In this work, we have sought to obtain new insights into how MgCl2 affects cellular systems, to assess whether MgCl2 can determine the window of life, and, if so, to derive a value for this window. We have dissected two relevant cellular stress-related activities of MgCl2 solutions, namely water activity reduction and chaotropicity, and analysed signatures of life at different concentrations of MgCl2 in a natural environment, namely the 0.05,5.05 M MgCl2 gradient of the seawater : hypersaline brine interface of Discovery Basin , a large, stable brine lake almost saturated with MgCl2, located on the Mediterranean Sea floor. We document here the exceptional chaotropicity of MgCl2, and show that this property, rather than water activity reduction, inhibits life by denaturing biological macromolecules. In vitro, a test enzyme was totally inhibited by MgCl2 at concentrations below 1 M; and culture medium with MgCl2 concentrations above 1.26 M inhibited the growth of microbes in samples taken from all parts of the Discovery interface. Although DNA and rRNA from key microbial groups (sulfate reducers and methanogens) were detected along the entire MgCl2 gradient of the seawater : Discovery brine interface, mRNA, a highly labile indicator of active microbes, was recovered only from the upper part of the chemocline at MgCl2 concentrations of less than 2.3 M. We also show that the extreme chaotropicity of MgCl2 at high concentrations not only denatures macromolecules, but also preserves the more stable ones: such indicator molecules, hitherto regarded as evidence of life, may thus be misleading signatures in chaotropic environments. Thus, the chaotropicity of MgCl2 would appear to be a window-of-life-determining parameter, and the results obtained here suggest that the upper MgCl2 concentration for life, in the absence of compensating (e.g. kosmotropic) solutes, is about 2.3 M. [source] A view of extraterrestrial soilsEUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE, Issue 6 2009G. Certini Summary The nature of soils on celestial bodies other than Earth is a growing area of research in planetary geology. However, disagreement over the significance of these deposits arises, in part, through the lack of a unified concept and definition of soil in the literature. The pragmatic definition ,medium for plant growth' is taken by some to imply the necessity of biota for soil to exist, and has been commonly adopted in the planetary science community. In contrast, a more complex and informative definition is based on scientific theory: soil is the (bio)geochemically/physically altered material at the surface of a planetary body that encompasses surficial extraterrestrial telluric deposits. This definition is based on the premise that soil is a body that retains information about its environmental history and that it does not need the presence of life to form. Four decades of missions have gathered geochemical information regarding the surface of planets and bodies within the Solar System, and information is quickly increasing. Reviewing the current knowledge on properties of extraterrestrial regoliths, we conclude that the surficial deposits of Venus, Mars and our moon should be considered to be soils in a pedological sense, and that Mercury and some large asteroids are covered in mantles that are soil candidates. A key environmental distinction between Earth and other Solar System bodies is the presence of life, and because of this dissimilarity in soil-forming processes, it is reasonable to distinguish these (presently) abiotic soils as Astrosols. Attempts to provide detailed classifications of extraterrestrial soils are premature, given our poor current knowledge of the Universe, but they highlight the fact that Earth possesses almost-abiotic environments that lend themselves to providing more understanding about telluric bodies of the Solar System. "He found himself in the neighbourhood of the asteroids 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, and 330. He began, therefore, by visiting them, in order to add to his knowledge." (Excerpt from the The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry) [source] A planetary system with an escaping MarsASTRONOMISCHE NACHRICHTEN, Issue 1 2007Á. Süli Abstract The chaotic behaviour of the motion of the planets in our Solar System is well established. In this work to model a hypothetical extrasolar planetary system our Solar System was modified in such a way that we replaced the Earth by a more massive planet and let the other planets and all the orbital elements unchanged. The major result of former numerical experiments with a modified Solar System was the appearance of a chaotic window at ,E , (4, 6), where the dynamical state of the system was highly chaotic and even the body with the smallest mass escaped in some cases. On the contrary for very large values of the mass of the Earth, even greater than that of Jupiter regular dynamical behaviour was observed. In this paper the investigations are extended to the complete Solar System and showed, that this chaotic window does still exist. Tests in different ,Solar Systems' clarified that including only Jupiter and Saturn with their actual masses together with a more ,massive' Earth (4 < ,E < 6) perturbs the orbit of Mars so that it can even be ejected from the system. Using the results of the Laplace-Lagrange secular theory we found secular resonances acting between the motions of the nodes of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. These secular resonances give rise to strong chaos, which is the cause of the appearance of the instability window. (© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [source] Thermal effects of circumplanetary disc formation around proto-gas giant planetsMONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 2 2009M. N. Machida ABSTRACT The formation of a circumplanetary disc and accretion of angular momentum on to a protoplanetary system are investigated using three-dimensional hydrodynamical simulations. The local region around a protoplanet in a protoplanetary disc is considered with sufficient spatial resolution: the region from outside the Hill sphere to the Jovian radius is covered by the nested-grid method. To investigate the thermal effects of the circumplanetary disc, various equations of state are adopted. Large thermal energy around the protoplanet slightly changes the structure of the circumplanetary disc. Compared with a model adopting an isothermal equation of state, in a model with an adiabatic equation of state, the protoplanet's gas envelope extends farther, and a slightly thick disc appears near the protoplanet. However, different equations of state do not affect the acquisition process of angular momentum for the protoplanetary system. Thus, the specific angular momentum acquired by the system is fitted as a function only of the protoplanet's mass. A large fraction of the total angular momentum contributes to the formation of the circumplanetary disc. The disc forms only in a compact region in very close proximity to the protoplanet. Adapting the results to the Solar system, the proto-Jupiter and Saturn have compact discs in the region of r < 21rJup(r < 0.028 rH,Jup) and r < 66rSat(r < 0.061rH,Sat), respectively, where rJup(rH,Jup) and rSat(rH,Sat) are the Jovian and Saturnian (Hill) radius, respectively. The surface density has a peak in these regions due to the balance between centrifugal force and gravity of the protoplanet. The size of these discs corresponds well to the outermost orbit of regular satellites around Jupiter and Saturn. Regular satellites may form in such compact discs around proto-gas giant planets. [source] The distant activity of Short Period Comets,, II.MONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 1 2008E. Mazzotta Epifani ABSTRACT The activity of the Short Period Comets (SPCs) at large heliocentric distance (Rh > 3 au) occurs in a region of the Solar system where the water sublimation rate is low and so the sublimation of other volatiles, for example CO or CO2, could drive the presence of a coma. The detection of distant activity in a SPC can therefore give important hints on its composition. Moreover, a complete characterization of the distant SPCs degree of activity is crucial in order to give correct estimates of the nucleus size and to obtain more reliable size-distribution curves of cometary nuclei. The aim of this paper is to present the last results of a program of CCD imaging of distant SPCs, started in 2004 December and concluded with observing runs at the 3.5-m Telescopio Nazionale Galileo at La Palma, in 2005 April, and at the 2.2-m Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA) telescope in Spain, in 2005 May. During the Spring 2005 campaign, 12 SPCs have been targeted in the R band (eight numbered SPCs and four still unnumbered SPCs): 61P/Schajn,Schaldach, 71P/Clark, 98P/Takamizawa, 103P/Hartley 2, 117P/Helin,Roman,Alu 1, 118P/Shoemaker,Levy 4, 121P/Shoemaker,Holt 2, 136P/Mueller 3, P/2002 T5 (LINEAR), P/2003 S1 (NEAT), P/2003 S2 (NEAT), P/2004 DO29 (Spacewatch,LINEAR). The heliocentric distance of the targets was 3.05 ,Rh, 5.30 au. Several levels of activity were detected in the sample, from stellar appearance to well-developed coma and tail. In some cases, the occurrence of cometary activity could be enhanced only with deep visible imaging (e.g. with very long exposure time). For comets with stellar appearance, it was possible to derive a value or a range for the nucleus radius rnucleus (assuming a ,classical' albedo value of 0.04): 98P (rnucleus= 0.43 ± 0.10 km), 136P (rnucleus= 1.2 ± 0.2 km), P/2003 S2 (rnucleus= 0.81 to 1.55 km). For the active comets, we measured dust production levels in terms of Af, quantity, which was 9.9 , Af,, 671 cm. Ensemble properties of the whole sample of the long-term program (a total of 17 SPCs) have been analysed in terms of the relationship among distant activity and dynamical evolution of the targets (in particular, an inward ,jump' of the perihelion distance): we can conclude that, even if there is some theoretical indication that this could occur, the hypothesis of distant activity triggered by a rise in perihelion temperature cannot be univocally invoked for these comets. [source] Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisitedMONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 1 2008K.-P. Schröder ABSTRACT We revisit the distant future of the Sun and the Solar system, based on stellar models computed with a thoroughly tested evolution code. For the solar giant stages, mass loss by the cool (but not dust-driven) wind is considered in detail. Using the new and well-calibrated mass-loss formula of Schröder & Cuntz, we find that the mass lost by the Sun as a red giant branch (RGB) giant (0.332 M,, 7.59 Gyr from now) potentially gives planet Earth a significant orbital expansion, inversely proportional to the remaining solar mass. According to these solar evolution models, the closest encounter of planet Earth with the solar cool giant photosphere will occur during the tip-RGB phase. During this critical episode, for each time-step of the evolution model, we consider the loss of orbital angular momentum suffered by planet Earth from tidal interaction with the giant Sun, as well as dynamical drag in the lower chromosphere. As a result of this, we find that planet Earth will not be able to escape engulfment, despite the positive effect of solar mass loss. In order to survive the solar tip-RGB phase, any hypothetical planet would require a present-day minimum orbital radius of about 1.15 au. The latter result may help to estimate the chances of finding planets around white dwarfs. Furthermore, our solar evolution models with detailed mass-loss description predict that the resulting tip-AGB (asymptotic giant branch) giant will not reach its tip-RGB size. Compared to other solar evolution models, the main reason is the more significant amount of mass lost already in the RGB phase of the Sun. Hence, the tip-AGB luminosity will come short of driving a final, dust-driven superwind, and there will be no regular solar planetary nebula (PN). The tip-AGB is marked by a last thermal pulse, and the final mass loss of the giant may produce a circumstellar (CS) shell similar to, but rather smaller than, that of the peculiar PN IC 2149 with an estimated total CS shell mass of just a few hundredths of a solar mass. [source] Non-linear damping of slab modes and cosmic ray transportMONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 2 2008A. Shalchi ABSTRACT By applying recent results for the slab correlation time-scale on to cosmic ray scattering theory, we compute cosmic ray parallel mean free paths within the quasi-linear limit. By employing these results on to charged particle transport in the Solar system, we demonstrate that much larger parallel mean free paths can be obtained in comparison to previous results. A comparison with solar wind observations is also presented to show that the new theoretical results are much closer to the observations than the previous results. [source] A census of the Carina Nebula , II.MONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 4 2007Energy budget, global properties of the nebulosity ABSTRACT The first paper in this series took a direct census of energy input from the known OB stars in the Carina Nebula, and in this paper we study the global properties of the surrounding nebulosity. This detailed comparison may prove useful for interpreting observations of extragalactic giant H ii regions and ultraluminous infrared (IR) galaxies. We find that the total IR luminosity of Carina is about 1.2 × 107 L,, accounting for only about 50,60 per cent of the known stellar luminosity from Paper I. Similarly, the ionizing photon luminosity derived from the integrated radio continuum is about 7 × 1050 s,1, accounting for ,75 per cent of the expected Lyman continuum from known OB stars. The total kinetic energy of the nebula is about 8 × 1051 erg, or ,30 per cent of the mechanical energy from stellar winds over the lifetime of the nebula, so there is no need to invoke a supernova (SN) explosion based on energetics. Warm dust grains residing in the H ii region interior dominate emission at 10,30 ,m, but cooler grains at 30,40 K dominate the IR luminosity and indicate a likely gas mass of ,106 M,. We find an excellent correlation between the radio continuum and 20,25 ,m emission, consistent with the idea that the ,80-K grain population is heated by trapped Ly, photons. Similarly, we find a near perfect correlation between the far-IR optical depth map of cool grains and 8.6-,m hydrocarbon emission, indicating that most of the nebular mass resides as atomic gas in photodissociation regions and not in dense molecular clouds. Synchronized star formation around the periphery of Carina provides a strong case that star formation here was indeed triggered by stellar winds and ultraviolet radiation. This second generation appears to involve a cascade toward preferentially intermediate- and low-mass stars, but this may soon change when , Carinae and its siblings explode. If the current reservoir of atomic and molecular gas can be tapped at that time, massive star formation may be rejuvenated around the periphery of Carina much as if it were a young version of Gould's Belt. Furthermore, when these multiple SNe occur, the triggered second generation will be pelted repeatedly with SN ejecta bearing short-lived radioactive nuclides. Carina may therefore represent the most observable analogue to the cradle of our own Solar system. [source] A model-independent test of the spatial variations of the Newtonian gravitational constant in some extrasolar planetary systemsMONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 4 2007Lorenzo Iorio ABSTRACT In this paper, we directly constrain possible spatial variations of the Newtonian gravitational constant G over the range , 0.01,5 au in various extrasolar multiplanet systems. Using the third Kepler law, we determine the quantity ,XY=GX/GY for each couple of planets X and Y located at different distances from their parent star; deviations of the measured values of , from unity would signal variations of G. The obtained results for ,= 1 ,, are found to be very compatible with zero within the experimental errors (,/,,, 0.2,0.3). We make a comparison with an analogous test previously performed in our Solar system. [source] Detecting Sunyaev,Zel'dovich clusters with Planck, II.MONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 4 2006Foreground components, optimized filtering schemes ABSTRACT The Planck mission is the most sensitive all-sky cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiment currently planned. The High-Frequency Instrument (HFI) will be especially suited for observing clusters of galaxies by their thermal Sunyaev,Zel'dovich (SZ) effect. In order to assess Planck's SZ capabilities in the presence of spurious signals, a simulation is presented that combines maps of the thermal and kinetic SZ effects with a realization of the CMB, in addition to Galactic foregrounds (synchrotron emission, free,free emission, thermal emission from dust, CO-line radiation) as well as the submillimetric emission from celestial bodies of our Solar system. Additionally, observational issues such as the finite angular resolution and spatially non-uniform instrumental noise of Planck's sky maps are taken into account, yielding a set of all-sky flux maps, the autocorrelation and cross-correlation properties of which are examined in detail. In the second part of the paper, filtering schemes based on scale-adaptive and matched filtering are extended to spherical data sets, that enable the amplification of the weak SZ signal in the presence of all contaminations stated above. The theory of scale-adaptive and matched filtering in the framework of spherical maps is developed, the resulting filter kernel shapes are discussed and their functionality is verified. [source] Simulations of the population of Centaurs , II.MONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Issue 2 2004Individual objects ABSTRACT Detailed orbit integrations of clones of five Centaurs , namely, 1996 AR20, 2060 Chiron, 1995 SN55, 2000 FZ53 and 2002 FY36 , for durations of ,3 Myr are presented. One of our Centaur sample starts with perihelion initially under the control of Jupiter (1996 AR20), two start under the control of Saturn (Chiron and 1995 SN55) and one each starts under the control of Uranus (2000 FZ53) and Neptune (2002 FY36), respectively. A variety of interesting pathways are illustrated with detailed examples including: capture into the Jovian Trojans, repeated bursts of short-period comet behaviour, capture into mean-motion resonances with the giant planets and into Kozai resonances, as well as traversals of the entire Solar system. For each of the Centaurs, we provide statistics on the numbers (i) ejected, (ii) showing short-period comet behaviour and (iii) becoming Earth- and Mars-crossing. For example, Chiron has over 60 per cent of its clones becoming short-period objects, while 1995 SN55 has over 35 per cent. Clones of these two Centaurs typically make numerous close approaches to Jupiter. At the other extreme, 2000 FZ53 has ,2 per cent of its clones becoming short-period objects. In our simulations, typically 20 per cent of the clones which become short-period comets subsequently evolve into Earth-crossers. [source] Are extrasolar oceans common throughout the Galaxy?ASTRONOMISCHE NACHRICHTEN, Issue 8 2007D. Ehrenreich Abstract Light and cold extrasolar planets such as OGLE 2005-BLG-390Lb, a 5.5 Earth masses planet detected via microlensing, could be frequent in the Galaxy according to some preliminary results from microlensing experiments. These planets can be frozen rocky- or ocean-planet, situated beyond the snow line and, therefore, beyond the habitable zone of their system. They can nonetheless host a layer of liquid water, heated by radiogenic energy, underneath an ice shell surface for billions of years, before freezing completely. These results suggest that oceans under ice, like those suspected to be present on icy moons in the Solar system, could be a common feature of cold low-mass extrasolar planets. (© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [source] On the Approximation of Transport Phenomena , a Dynamical Systems ApproachGAMM - MITTEILUNGEN, Issue 1 2009Michael Dellnitz Abstract Transport phenomena are studied in a large variety of dynamical systems with applications ranging from the analysis of fluid flow in the ocean and the predator-prey interaction in jelly-fish to the investigation of blood flow in the cardiovascular system. Our approach to analyze transport is based on the methodology of so-called transfer operators associated with a dynamical system since this is particularly suitable. We describe the approach and illustrate it by two real world applications: the computation of transport for asteroids in the solar system and the approximation of macroscopic structures in the Southern Ocean (© 2009 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [source] Thermodynamic optimization of a solar system for cogeneration of water heating and absorption coolingINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH, Issue 13 2008R. Hovsapian Abstract This paper presents a contribution to understanding the behavior of solar-powered air conditioning and refrigeration systems with a view to determining the manner in which refrigeration rate, mass flows, heat transfer areas, and internal architecture are related. A cogeneration system consisting of a solar concentrator, a cavity-type receiver, a gas burner, and a thermal storage reservoir is devised to simultaneously produce heat (hot water) and cooling (absorption refrigerator system). A simplified mathematical model, which combines fundamental and empirical correlations, and principles of classical thermodynamics, mass and heat transfer, is developed. The proposed model is then utilized to simulate numerically the system transient and steady-state response under different operating and design conditions. A system global optimization for maximum performance (or minimum exergy destruction) in the search for minimum pull-down and pull-up times, and maximum system second law efficiency is performed with low computational time. Appropriate dimensionless groups are identified and the results are presented in normalized charts for general application. The numerical results show that the three-way maximized system second law efficiency, ,II,max,max,max, occurs when three system characteristic mass flow rates are optimally selected in general terms as dimensionless heat capacity rates, i.e. (,ss, ,wxwx, ,Hs)opt=(0.335, 0.28, 0.2). The minimum pull-down and pull-up times, and maximum second law efficiencies found with respect to the optimized operating parameters are sharp and, therefore, important to be considered in actual design. As a result, the model is expected to be a useful tool for simulation, design, and optimization of solar energy systems in the context of distributed power generation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Optimal use of solar collectors for residential buildingsINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH, Issue 11 2001Stig-Inge GustafssonArticle first published online: 5 JUN 200 Abstract Solar radiation is an abundant free resource which may be used in the form of solar heated water. This is achieved in solar collectors which, unfortunately, are expensive devices and, further, the warm water must be stored in accumulators,items which also cost money. This paper shows how we have optimized the situation for a block-of-flats in Sweden. In order to find this point we have used the minimum life-cycle cost (LCC) concept as a criterion. The best solution is therefore found when that cost finds its lowest value. It is also examined under which conditions solar collectors are part of the optimal solution and further it is calculated what happens if this optimal point is abandoned, i.e. how much will the LCC increase if other than optimal solutions are chosen. LCC optimization for multi-family buildings almost always results in a heating system with low operating costs such as district heating or dual-fuel systems where a heat pump takes care of the base load and an oil boiler the peak. The installation cost must, however, be kept to a reasonable level. Expensive solar panel systems are therefore normally avoided if the lowest LCC shall be reached, at least for Swedish conditions. This is so even if the solar system has a very low operating cost. For buildings where the only alternative energy source is electricity, solar collectors seem to be on the rim of profitability, i.e. for an energy price of about 0.6 SEK kWh,1. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [source] Vapor-condensed phase processes in the early solar systemMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 1 2010Lawrence GROSSMAN Many refractory inclusions in CM2 chondrites contain a relatively SiO2 -poor assemblage (spinel, hibonite, grossite, perovskite, corundum) that represents a high-temperature stage of condensation, and some may be pristine condensates that escaped later melting. Compact Type A and Type B refractory inclusions, consisting of spinel, melilite, perovskite, Ca-rich clinopyroxene ± anorthite, in CV3 chondrites are more SiO2 -rich and equilibrated with the solar nebular gas at a slightly lower temperature. Textures of many of these objects indicate that they underwent melting after condensation, crystallizing into the same phase assemblage as their precursors. The Ti3+/Ti4+ ratio of their pyroxene indicates that this process occurred in a gas whose oxygen fugacity () was approximately 8.5 log units below that of the iron-wüstite buffer, making them the only objects in chondrites known to have formed in a system whose composition was close to that of the sun. Relative to CI chondrites, these inclusions are uniformly enriched in a group of elements (e.g., Ca, REE, Zr, Ta, Ir) that are chemically diverse except for their high condensation temperatures in a system of solar composition. The enrichment factor, 17.5, can be interpreted to mean that these objects represent either the first 5.7 wt% of the condensable matter to condense during nebular cooling or the residue after vaporization of 94.3% of a CI chondrite precursor. The Mg and Si isotopic compositions of Types A and B inclusions are mass-fractionated by up to 10 and 4 ,/amu, respectively. When interpreted in terms of Rayleigh fractionation during evaporation of Mg and Si from the inclusions while they were molten, the isotopic compositions imply that up to 60% of the Mg and up to 25% of the Si were evaporated, and that approximately 80% of the enrichment in refractory (CaO+Al2O3) relative to more volatile (MgO+SiO2) in the average inclusion is due to initial condensation and approximately 20% due to subsequent evaporation. The mineralogical composition, including the Ti3+/Ti4+ ratio of the pyroxene, in Inti, a particle sampled from Comet Wild 2 by the Stardust spacecraft, is nearly identical to that of a Type B inclusion, indicating that comets contain not only the lowest-temperature condensates in the form of ices but the highest-temperature condensates as well. The FeO/(FeO+MgO) ratios of olivine and pyroxene in the matrix and chondrules of carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites are too high to be made in a system of solar composition, requiring s only 1 or 2 log units below iron-wüstite, more than 105 times higher than that of a solar gas. Various ways have been devised to generate cosmic gases sufficiently oxidizing to stabilize significant FeO in olivine at temperatures above those where Fe-Mg interdiffusion in olivine ceases. One is by vertical settling of dust toward the nebular midplane, enriching a region in dust relative to gas. Because dust is enriched in oxygen compared to carbon and hydrogen relative to solar composition, a higher results from total vaporization of the region, but the factor by which theoretical models have so far enriched the dust is 10 times too low. Another is by transporting icy bodies from the outer part of the nebula into the hot, inner part where vaporization of water ice occurs. Not only does this method fail to make the needed by a factor of 30,1000 but it also ignores simultaneous evaporation of carbon-bearing ices that would make the even lower. [source] Scientific exploration of near-Earth objects via the Orion Crew Exploration VehicleMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 12 2009Paul A. Abell The ideal mission profile would involve two or three astronauts on a 90 to 180 day flight, which would include a 7 to 14 day stay for proximity operations at the target NEO. This mission would be the first human expedition to an interplanetary body beyond the Earth-Moon system and would prove useful for testing technologies required for human missions to Mars and other solar system destinations. Piloted missions to NEOs using the CEV would undoubtedly provide a great deal of technical and engineering data on spacecraft operations for future human space exploration while conducting in-depth scientific investigations of these primitive objects. The main scientific advantage of sending piloted missions to NEOs would be the flexibility of the crew to perform tasks and to adapt to situations in real time. A crewed vehicle would be able to test several different sample collection techniques and target specific areas of interest via extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) more efficiently than robotic spacecraft. Such capabilities greatly enhance the scientific return from these missions to NEOs, destinations vital to understanding the evolution and thermal histories of primitive bodies during the formation of the early solar system. Data collected from these missions would help constrain the suite of materials possibly delivered to the early Earth, and would identify potential source regions from which NEOs originate. In addition, the resulting scientific investigations would refine designs for future extraterrestrial resource extraction and utilization, and assist in the development of hazard mitigation techniques for planetary defense. [source] The Fountain Hills unique CB chondrite: Insights into thermal processes on the CB parent bodyMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 6 2009Dante S. LAURETTA This meteorite is closely related to the CBa class. Mineral compositions and O-isotopic ratios are indistinguishable from other members of this group. However, many features of Fountain Hills are distinct from the other CB chondrites. Fountain Hills contains 23 volume percent metal, significantly lower than other members of this class. In addition, Fountain Hills contains porphyritic chondrules, which are extremely rare in other CBa chondrites. Fountain Hills does not appear to have experienced the extensive shock seen in other CB chondrites. The chondrule textures and lack of fine-grained matrix suggests that Fountain Hills formed in a dust-poor region of the early solar system by melting of solid precursors. Refractory siderophiles and lithophile elements are present in near-CI abundances (within a factor of two, related to the enhancement of metal). Moderately volatile and highly volatile elements are significantly depleted in Fountain Hills. The abundances of refractory siderophile trace elements in metal grains are consistent with condensation from a gas that is reduced relative to solar composition and at relatively high pressures (10,3bars). Fountain Hills experienced significant thermal metamorphism on its parent asteroid. Combining results from the chemical gradients in an isolated spinel grain with olivine-spinel geothermometry suggests a peak temperature of metamorphism between 535 °C and 878 °C, similar to type-4 ordinary chondrites. [source] Testing an integrated chronology: I-Xe analysis of enstatite meteorites and a eucriteMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 5 2008A. BUSFIELD In the case of the enstatite meteorites the inferred ages are associated with the pyroxene-rich separates giving pyroxene closure ages relative to the Shallowater standard of Indarch (EH4, 0.04 ± 0.67 Ma), Khairpur (EL6, ,4.22 ± 0.67 Ma), Khor Temiki (aubrite, ,0.06 Ma), and Itqiy (enstatite achondrite, ,2.6 ± 2.6 Ma), negative ages indicate closure after Shallowater. No separate from the cumulate eucrite Asuka (A,) 881394 yielded a consistent ratio, though excess 129Xe was observed in a feldspar separate, suggesting disturbance by thermal metamorphism within 25 Ma of closure in Shallowater. Iodine-129 ages are mapped to the absolute Pb-Pb time scale using the calibration proposed by Gilmour et al. (2006) who place the closure age of Shallowater at 4563.3 ± 0.4 Ma. Comparison of the combined 129I-Pb data with associated 53Mn ages, for objects that have been dated by both systems, indicates that all three chronometers evolved concordantly in the early solar system. The enstatite chondrites are offset from the linear array described by asteroid-belt objects when 53Mn ages are plotted against combined 129I-Pb data, supporting the suggestion that 53Mn was radially heterogeneous in the early solar system. [source] 182Hf- 182W chronometry and the early evolution history in the acapulcoite-lodranite parent bodyMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 4 2008Der-Chuen LEE Unlike the more evolved achondrites originating from differentiated asteroids,e.g., eucrites and angrites,bulk rock acapulcoites and lodranite are characterized by distinct 182W deficits relative to the terrestrial W, as well as to the undifferentiated chondrites, ,w varies from ,2.7 to ,2.4. This suggests that live- 182Hf was present during the formation of acapulcoites and lodranites, and their parent body probably had never experienced a global melting event. Due to the large uncertainties associated with the isochron for each sample, the bulk isochron that regressed through the mineral separates from all 3 samples has provided the best estimate to date for the timing of metamorphism in the acapulcoite-lodranite parent body, 5 (+6/-5) Myr after the onset of the solar system. It is thus inconclusive whether acapulcoites and lodranites have shared the same petrogenetic origin, based on the Hf-W data of this study. Nevertheless, the formation of acapulcoite-lodranite clan appears to have post-dated the metal-silicate segregation in differentiated asteroids. This can be explained by a slower accretion rate for the acapulcoite-lodranite parent body, or that it had never accreted to a critical mass that could allow the metal-silicate segregation to occur naturally. [source] Review of the population of impactors and the impact cratering rate in the inner solar systemMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 11 2007Patrick Michel The best witness of these events is the lunar surface, which kept the memory of the impacts that it underwent during the last 3.8 Gyr. In this paper, we review the recent studies at the origin of a reliable model of the impactor population in the inner solar system, namely the near-Earth object (NEO) population. Then we briefly expose the scaling laws used to relate a crater diameter to body size. The model of the NEO population and its impact frequency on terrestrial planets is consistent with the crater distribution on the lunar surface when appropriate scaling laws are used. Concerning the early phases of our solar system's history, a scenario has recently been proposed that explains the origin of the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) and some other properties of our solar system. In this scenario, the four giant planets had initially circular orbits, were much closer to each other, and were surrounded by a massive disk of planetesimals. Dynamical interactions with this disk destabilized the planetary system after 500,600 Myr. Consequently, a large portion of the planetesimal disk, as well as 95% of the Main Belt asteroids, were sent into the inner solar system, causing the LHB while the planets reached their current orbits. Our knowledge of solar system evolution has thus improved in the last decade despite our still-poor understanding of the complex cratering process. [source] Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni (1756,1827) and the origins of modern meteorite researchMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue S9 2007Ursula B. Marvin These ideas violated two strongly held contemporary beliefs: 1) fragments of rock and metal do not fall from the sky, and 2) no small bodies exist in space beyond the Moon. From the beginning, Chladni was severely criticized for basing his hypotheses on historical eyewitness reports of falls, which others regarded as folk tales, and for taking gross liberties with the laws of physics. Ten years later, the study of fallen stones and irons was established as a valid field of investigation. Today, some scholars credit Chladni with founding meteoritics as a science; others regard his contributions as scarcely worthy of mention. Writings by his contemporaries suggest that Chladni's book alone would not have led to changes of prevailing theories; thus, he narrowly escaped the fate of those scientists who propose valid hypotheses prematurely. However, between 1794 and 1798, four falls of stones were witnessed and widely publicized. There followed a series of epoch-making analyses of fallen stones and "native irons" by the chemist Edward C. Howard and the mineralogist Jacques-Louis de Bournon. They showed that all the stones were much alike in texture and composition but significantly different from the Earth's known crustal rocks. Of primary importance was Howard's discovery of nickel in the irons and the metal grains of the stones. This linked the two as belonging to the same natural phenomenon. These chemical results, published in February 1802, persuaded some of the leading scientists in England, France, and Germany that bodies do fall from the sky. Within a few months, chemists in France reported similar results and a new field of study was inaugurated internationally, although opposition lingered on until April 1803, when nearly 3,000 stones fell at L'Aigle in Normandy and transformed the last skeptics into believers. Chladni immediately received full credit for his hypothesis of falls, but decades passed before his linking of falling bodies with fireballs received general acceptance. His hypothesis of their origin in cosmic space met with strong resistance from those who argued that stones formed within the Earth's atmosphere or were ejected by lunar volcanoes. After 1860, when both of these hypotheses were abandoned, there followed a century of debate between proponents of an interstellar versus a planetary origin. Not until the 1950s did conclusive evidence of their elliptical orbits establish meteorite parent bodies as members of the solar system. Thus, nearly 200 years passed before the questions of origin that Chladni raised finally were resolved. [source] Titanium isotopic compositions of well-characterized silicon carbide grains from Orgueil (CI): Implications for s-process nucleosynthesisMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 7-8 2007Gary R. Huss Using the 16 most-precise measurements, we estimate the relative contributions of stellar nucleosynthesis during the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase and the initial compositions of the parent stars to the compositions of the grains. To do this, we compare our data to the results of several published stellar models that employ different values for some important parameters. Our analysis confirms that s -process synthesis during the AGB phase only slightly modified the titanium compositions in the envelopes of the stars where mainstream silicon carbide grains formed, as it did for silicon. Our analysis suggests that the parent stars of the >1 ,m silicon carbide grains that we measured were generally somewhat more massive than the Sun (2,3 M,) and had metallicities similar to or slightly higher than solar. Here we differ slightly from results of previous studies, which indicated masses at the lower end of the range 1.5,3 M, and metallicities near solar. We also conclude that models using a standard 13C pocket, which produces a good match for the main component of s -process elements in the solar system, overestimate the contribution of the 13C pocket to s -process nucleosynthesis of titanium found in silicon carbide grains. Although previous studies have suggested that the solar system has a significantly different titanium isotopic composition than the parent stars of silicon carbide grains, we find no compelling evidence that the Sun falls off of the array defined by those stars. We also conclude that the Sun does lie on the low-metallicity end of the silicon and titanium arrays defined by mainstream silicon carbide grains. [source] 36Cl, 26Al, and O isotopes in an Allende type B2 CAI: Implications for multiple secondary alteration events in the early solar systemMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 7-8 2007Takayuki Ushikubo CAI#2 has two distinct alteration domains: the anorthite-grossular (An-Grs) domain that mostly consists of anorthite and grossular, and the Na-rich domain that mostly consists of sodalite, anorthite, and Fe-bearing phases. Large 36S excesses (up to ,400,) corresponding to an initial 36Cl/35Cl ratio of (1.4 ± 0.3) × 10,6 were observed in sodalite of the Na-rich domain, but no resolvable 26Mg excesses were observed in anorthite and sodalite of the Na-rich domain (the initial 26Al/27Al ratio < 4.4 × 10,7). If we assume that the 36Cl- 36S and the 26Al- 26Mg systematics were closed simultaneously, the 36Cl/35Cl ratio would have to be on the order of ,10,2 when CAIs were formed. In contrast to sodalite in Na-rich domain, significant 26Mg excesses (up to ,35,) corresponding to an initial 26Al/27Al ratio of (1.2 ± 0.2) × 10,5 were identified in anorthite of the An-Grs domain. The 26Al- 26Mg systematics of secondary phases in CAI#2 suggest that CAIs experienced multiple alteration events. Some of the alteration processes occurred while 36Cl (half-life is 0.3 Myr) and 26Al (half-life is 0.72 Myr) were still alive, whereas others took place much later. Assuming that 26Al was homogeneously distributed in the solar nebula, our study implies that alteration of CAIs occurred as early as within 1.5 Myr of CAI formation and as late as 5.7 Myr after. [source] The Villalbeto de la Peña meteorite fall: II.METEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 4 2006Determination of atmospheric trajectory, orbit The related daylight fireball was witnessed by thousands of people from Spain, Portugal, and southern France, and was also photographed and videotaped from different locations of León and Palencia provinces in Spain. From accurate astrometric calibrations of these records, we have determined the atmospheric trajectory of the meteoroid. The initial fireball velocity, calculated from measurements of 86 video frames, was 16.9 ± 0.4 km/s. The slope of the trajectory was 29.0 ± 0.6° to the horizontal, the recorded velocity during the main fragmentation at a height of 27.9 ± 0.4 km was 14.2 ± 0.2 km/s, and the fireball terminal height was 22.2 ± 0.2 km. The heliocentric orbit of the meteoroid resided in the ecliptic plane (i = 0.0 ± 0.2°), having a perihelion distance of 0.860 ± 0.007 AU and a semimajor axis of 2.3 ± 0.2 AU. Therefore, the meteorite progenitor body came from the Main Belt, like all previous determined meteorite orbits. The Villalbeto de la Peña fireball analysis has provided the ninth known orbit of a meteorite in the solar system. [source] The I-Xe chronometer and the early solar systemMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 1 2006J. D. Gilmour Individual mineral phases or components can yield interpretable trends in initial 129I/127I ratio, whereas whole-rock I-Xe ages are often hard to interpret because of the diversity of host phases, many of which are secondary. Varying standardizations in early work require caution; only samples calibrated against Shallowater enstatite or Bjurböle can contribute reliably to the emerging I-Xe chronology of the early solar system. Although sparse, data for which I-Xe and Mn-Cr can be compared suggest that the two systems are concordant among ordinary chondrite samples. We derive a new age for the closure of the Shallowater enstatite standard of 4563.3 ± 0.4 Myr from the relationship between the I-Xe and Pb-Pb systems. This yields absolute I-Xe ages and allows data from this and other systems to be tested by attempting to construct a common chronology of events in the early solar system. Absolute I-Xe dates for aqueous and igneous processes are consistent with other systems. Consideration of the I-Xe host phases in CAIs and dark inclusions demonstrates that here the chronometer records aqueous alteration of pre-existing material. The ranges of chondrule ages deduced from the Al-Mg and I-Xe systems in Semarkona (LL3.0) and Chainpur (LL3.4) are consistent. Chainpur I-Xe data exhibit a greater range of ages than Semarkona, possibly reflecting a greater degree of parent body processing. However individual chondrules show little or no evidence of such processing. Determining the host phase(s) responsible for high temperature correlations may resolve the issue. [source] Looking for life, searching the solar system by Paul Clancy, André Brack, and Gerda HorneckMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 11 2005Benton Clark [source] Spectral reflectance-compositional properties of spinels and chromites: Implications for planetary remote sensing and geothermometryMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 4 2004Edward A. Cloutis These two groups of minerals are spectrally distinct, which relates largely to differences in the types of major cations present. Both exhibit a number of absorption features in the 0.3,26 ,m region that show systematic variations with composition and can be used to quantify or constrain certain compositional parameters, such as cation abundances, and site occupancies. For spinels, the best correlations exist between Fe2+ content and wavelength positions of the 0.46, 0.93, 2.8, Restrahelen, 12.3, 16.2, and 17.5 ,m absorption features, Al and Fe3+ content with the wavelength position of the 0.93 ,m absorption feature, and Cr content from the depth of the absorption band near 0.55 ,m. For chromites, the best correlations exist between Cr content and wavelength positions of the 0.49, 0.59, 2, 17.5, and 23 ,m absorption features, Fe2+ and Mg contents with the wavelength position of the 1.3 ,m absorption feature, and Al content with the wavelength position of the 2 ,m absorption feature. At shorter wavelengths, spinels and chromites are most readily distinguished by the wavelength position of the absorption band in the 2 ,m region (<2.1 ,m for spinels, >2.1 ,m for chromite), while at longer wavelengths, spectral differences are more pronounced. The importance of being able to derive compositional information for spinels and chromites from spectral analysis stems from the relationship between composition and petrogenetic conditions (pressure, temperature, oxygen fugacity) and the widespread presence of spinels and chromites in the inner solar system. When coupled with the ability to derive compositional information for mafic silicates from spectral analysis, this opens up the possibility of deriving petrogenetic information for remote spinel- and chromite-bearing targets from analysis of their reflectance spectra. [source] Clay mineral-organic matter relationships in the early solar systemMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 12 2002Victoria K. Pearson These organic-rich meteorites provide a valuable and tangible record of the chemical steps taken towards the origin of life in the early solar system. Chondritic organic matter is present in the inorganic meteorite matrix which, in the CM and CI chondrites, contains evidence of alteration by liquid water on the parent asteroid. An unanswered and fundamental question is to what extent did the organic matter and inorganic products of aqueous alteration interact or display interdependence? We have used an organic labelling technique to reveal that the meteoritic organic matter is strongly associated with clay minerals. This association suggests that clay minerals may have had an important trapping and possibly catalytic role in chemical evolution in the early solar system prior to the origin of life on the early Earth. [source] The effects of nebula surface density profile and giant-planet eccentricities on planetary accretion in the inner solar systemMETEORITICS & PLANETARY SCIENCE, Issue 11 2002J. E. CHAMBERS Two surface density profiles are examined: a decaying profile with , , 1/a, where a is orbital semi-major axis, and a peaked profile in which , increases for a < 2 AU and decreases for a > 2 AU. The peaked profiles are generated by models of coagulation in an initially hot nebula. Models with initial ej,s = 0.05 (the current value) and 0.1 are considered. Simulations using the decaying profile with ej,s = 0.1 produce systems most like the observed planets in terms of mass-weighted mean a and the absence of a planet in the asteroid belt. Simulations with doubled , produce planets roughly twice as massive as the nominal case. Most initial embryos are removed in each simulation via ejection from the solar system or collision with the Sun. The asteroid belt is almost entirely cleared on a timescale of 10,100 Ma that depends sensitively on ej,s. Most initial mass with a < 2 AU survives, with the degree of mass loss increasing with a. Mass loss from the terrestrial region occurs on a timescale that is long compared to the mass loss time for the asteroid belt. Substantial radial mixing of material occurs in all simulations, but is greater in simulations with initital ej,s = 0.05. The degree of mixing is equivalent to a feeding zone of half width 1.5 and 0.9 AU for an Earth mass planet at 1 AU for the cases ej,s = 0.05 and 0.1, respectively. In simulations with ej,s = 0.05, roughly one-third and 5,10% of the mass contained in final terrestrial planets originated in the region a > 2.5 AU for the decaying and peaked profiles, respectively. In the case ej,s = 0.1, the median mass accreted from a > 2.5 AU is zero for both profiles. [source] | ||||||||||||||||