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Divergence Times (divergence + time)
Kinds of Divergence Times Terms modified by Divergence Times Selected AbstractsTIME TO THE MOST RECENT COMMON ANCESTOR AND DIVERGENCE TIMES OF POPULATIONS OF COMMON CHAFFINCHES (FRINGILLA COELEBS) IN EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA: INSIGHTS INTO PLEISTOCENE REFUGIA AND CURRENT LEVELS OF MIGRATIONEVOLUTION, Issue 1 2002Cortland K. Griswold Abstract We analyzed sequences from a 275-bp hypervariable region in the 5, end of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 190 common chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) from 19 populations in Europe and North Africa, including new samples from Greece and Morocco. Coalescent techniques were applied to estimate the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) and divergence times of these populations. The first objective of this study was to infer the locations of refugia where chaffinches survived the last glacial episode, and this was achieved by estimating the TMRCA of populations in regions surrounding the Mediterranean that were unglaciated in the late Pleistocene. Although extant populations in Iberia, Corsica, Greece, and North Africa harbor haplotypes that are basal in a phylogenetic tree, this information alone cannot be used to infer that these localities served as refugia, because it is impossible to infer the ages of populations and their divergence times without also considering the population genetic processes of mutation, migration, and drift. Provided we assume the TMRCAs of populations are a reasonable estimate of a population's age, coalescent-based methods place resident populations in Iberia, Corsica, Greece, and North Africa during the time of the last glacial maximum, suggesting these regions served as refugia for the common chaffinch. The second objective was to determine when populations began diverging from each other and to use this as a baseline to estimate current levels of gene flow. Divergence time estimates suggest that European populations began diverging about 60,000 years before present. The relatively recent divergence of populations in North Africa, Italy, and Iberia may explain why classic migration estimates based on equilibrium assumptions are high for these populations. We compare these estimates with nonequilibrium-based estimates and show that the nonequilibrium estimates are consistently lower than the equilibrium estimates. [source] Genetic variation and relationships among eight Indian riverine buffalo breedsMOLECULAR ECOLOGY, Issue 3 2006SATISH KUMAR Abstract Twenty-seven microsatellite loci were used to define genetic variation and relationships among eight Indian riverine buffalo breeds. The total number of alleles ranged from 166 in the Toda breed to 194 each in the Mehsana and the Murrah. Significant departures from the Hardy,Weinberg equilibrium were observed for 26 locus-breed combinations due to heterozygote deficiency. Breed differentiation was analysed by estimation of FST index (values ranging from 0.75% to 6.00%) for various breed combinations. The neighbour-joining tree constructed from chord distances, multidimensional scaling (MDS) display of FST values and Bayesian clustering approach consistently identified the Toda, Jaffarabadi, and Pandharpuri breeds as one lineage each, and the Bhadawari, Nagpuri, Surati, Mehsana and Murrah breeds as admixture. Analysis of molecular variance refuted the earlier classification of these breeds proposed on the basis of morphological and geographical parameters. The Toda buffaloes, reared by a tribe of the same name, represent an endangered breed from the Nilgiri hills in South India. Divergence time of the Toda buffaloes from the other main breeds, calculated from Nei's standard genetic distances based on genotyping data on seven breeds and 20 microsatellite loci, suggested separation of this breed approximately 1800,2700 years ago. The results of the present study will be useful for development of rational breeding and conservation strategies for Indian buffaloes. [source] EVOLUTION OF POECILOGONY AND THE BIOGEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICAN POPULATIONS OF THE POLYCHAETE STREBLOSPIOEVOLUTION, Issue 4 2000Stefan R. Schulze Abstract. Invertebrate interspecific developmental patterns can be highly variable and, taxonomically, are considered only weakly constrained. Intraspecifically, some invertebrate species possess multiple developmental modes,a condition known as poecilogony. Closer examination of most putative poecilogenous species, however, has not supported poecilogony, but rather has uncovered hidden or cryptic species. The polychaete Streblospio benedicti is a well-known, poecilogenous species found along the coast of North America. We collected mitochondrial cytochrome subunit I DNA sequence data from 88 individuals taken from 11 locations along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts of the United States to provide a phylogenetic framework from which to interpret intraspecific variation in larval life history and brooding structure morphology in this species. Our results are consistent with a recent revision of the species into two separate species: S. benedicti, a pouched brooding form distributed along the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, and S. gynobranchiata, a branchiate brooding form in the Gulf of Mexico. Contrary to the redescription, S. benedicti is paraphyletic because the pouched brooding population in Vero Beach, Florida shows strong genetic affinity with Gulf of Mexico populations (S. gynobranchiata). However, S. benedicti is a true poecilogenous species, with both lecithotrophic and planktotrophic individuals possessing identical mitochondrial DNA haplotypes. Crossbreeding experiments further support the molecular phylogeny with reproductive isolation demonstrated between, but not within, the major phylogenetic clades consistent with the previously described species. The genetic break near Vero Beach, Florida, corresponds to a well-known phylogeographic boundary, but the estimated time of separation for the Streblospio spp., approximately 10 million years before present, predates all other known phylogeographic subdivisions in this area. This suggests that biogeographic sundering in this region is a recurrent event. Divergence times within the major Streblospio spp. clades are recent and indicate that changes in larval life history as well as brooding structure morphology are highly plastic and can evolve rapidly. [source] Robust support for tardigrade clades and their ages from three protein-coding nuclear genesINVERTEBRATE BIOLOGY, Issue 2 2004Jerome C. Regier Abstract. Coding sequences (5,334 nt total) from elongation factor-1,, elongation factor-2, and the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II were determined for 6 species of Tardigrada, 2 of Arthropoda, and 2 of Onychophora. Parsimony and likelihood analyses of nucleotides and amino acids yielded strong support for Tardigrada and all internal nodes (i.e., 100% bootstrap support for Tardigrada, Eutardigrada, Parachela, Hypsibiidae, and Macrobiotidae). Results are in agreement with morphology and an earlier molecular study based on analysis of 18S ribosomal sequences. Divergence times have been estimated from amino acid sequence data using an empirical Bayesian statistical approach, which does not assume a strict molecular clock. Divergence time estimates are pre-Vendian for Tardigrada/Arthropoda, Vendian or earlier for Eutardigrada/Heterotardigrada, Silurian to Ordovician for Parachela/Apochela, Permian to Carboniferous for Hypsibiidae and Macrobiotidae, and Mesozoic for Isohypsibius/Thulinia (both within Hypsibiidae) and Macrobiotus/Richtersius (both within Macrobiotidae). [source] Speciation chronology of rockhopper penguins inferred from molecular, geological and palaeoceanographic dataJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2009Marc De Dinechin Abstract Aim, The Southern Ocean is split into several biogeographical provinces between convergence zones that separate watermasses of different temperatures. Recent molecular phylogenies have uncovered a strong phylogeographic structure among rockhopper penguin populations, Eudyptes chrysocome sensu lato, from different biogeographical provinces. These studies suggested a reclassification as three species in two major clades, corresponding, respectively, to warm, subtropical and cold sub-Antarctic watermasses rather than to geographic proximity. Such a phylogeographic pattern, also observed in plants, invertebrates and fishes of the Southern Ocean, suggests that past changes in the positions of watermasses may have affected the evolutionary history of penguins. We calculated divergence times among various rockhopper penguin clades and calibrated these data with palaeomagmatic and palaeoceanographic events to generate a speciation chronology in rockhopper penguins. Location, Southern Ocean. Methods, Divergence times between populations were calculated using five distinct mitochondrial DNA loci, and assuming a molecular clock model as implemented in mdiv. The molecular evolution rate of rockhopper penguins was calibrated using the radiochronological age of St Paul Island and Amsterdam Island in the southern Indian Ocean. Separations within other clades were correlated with palaeoceanographic data using this calibrated rate. Results, The split between the Atlantic and Indian populations of rockhopper penguins was dated as 0.25 Ma, using the date of emergence of St Paul and Amsterdam islands, and the divergence between sub-Antarctic and subtropical rockhopper penguins was dated as c. 0.9 Ma (i.e. during the mid-Pleistocene transition, a major change in the Earth's climate cycles). Main conclusions, The mid-Pleistocene transition is known to have caused a major southward shift in watermasses in the Southern Ocean, thus changing the environment around the northernmost rockhopper penguin breeding sites. This ecological isolation of northernmost populations may have caused vicariant speciation, splitting the species into two major clades. After the emergence of St Paul and Amsterdam islands in the subtropical Indian Ocean 0.25 Ma, these islands were colonized by penguins from the subtropical Atlantic, 6000 km away, rather than by penguins from the sub-Antarctic Indian Ocean, 5000 km closer. [source] Inter-ocean dispersal is an important mechanism in the zoogeography of hakes (Pisces: Merluccius spp.)JOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 6 2001W. Stewart Grant Aim To present new genetic data and to review available published genetic data that bear on the phylogeny of hakes in the genus Merluccius. To construct a zoogeographical model from a summary phylogenetic tree with dated nodes. To search for an explanation of antitropical distributions in hakes. To assess peripheral isolate, centrifugal and vicariance models of speciation in view of the molecular phylogeny and zoogeography of hakes. Locations Northern and southern Atlantic Ocean, eastern Pacific Ocean, South Pacific Ocean. Methods Electrophoretic analysis of 20 allozyme loci in 10 species of hakes. Phylogenetic tree construction with parsimony and bootstrap methods. Reanalysis of previous genetic data. Analysis of zoogeographical patterns with geographical distributions of molecular genetic markers. Results Phylogenetic analyses of new and previous allozyme data and previous mitochondrial DNA data indicate a deep genetic partition between Old- and New-World hakes with genetic distances corresponding to 10,15 Myr of separation. This time marks a widening rift between Europe and North America and a rapid drop in ocean temperatures that subdivided an ancestral population of North Atlantic hake. Two Old-World clades spanning the equator include pairs of sister taxa separated by tropical waters. Divergence times between these pairs of sister-taxa variously date to the early Pliocene and late Pleistocene. Amongst New-World hakes, pairs of sister taxa are separated by equatorial waters, by the Southern Ocean, and by the Panama Isthmus. These genetic separations reflect isolation by the rise of the Isthmus 3,4 Ma and by Pliocene and Pleistocene dispersals. Pairs of species occurring in sympatry or parapatry in six regions do not reflect sister-species relationships, but appear to reflect allopatric divergence and back dispersals of descendent species. Some geographically isolated regional populations originating within the last few hundreds of thousands of years merit subspecies designations. Conclusions Vicariance from tectonic movement of continental plates or ridge formation cannot account for the disjunct distributions of most hake sister taxa. Molecular genetic divergences place the origin of most hake species diversity in the last 2,3 Myr, a period of negligible tectonic activity. Distributions of many hake species appear to have resulted from dispersals and back dispersals across both warm equatorial waters and cool waters in the Southern Ocean, driven by oscillations in climate and ocean temperatures. Genetic and ecological divergence prevents hybridization and competitive exclusion between sympatric species pairs in six regions. Sister-taxa relationships and estimates of divergence are consistent with the modified peripheral isolate model of speciation in which vicariances, range expansions and contractions, dispersals and founder events lead to isolated populations that subsequently diverge to form new species. [source] Evolutionary history of the land snail Helix aspersa in the Western Mediterranean: preliminary results inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequencesMOLECULAR ECOLOGY, Issue 1 2001A. Guiller Abstract Intraspecific phylogeographic methods provide a means of examining the history of genetic exchange among populations. As part of a study of the history of Helixaspersa in the Western Mediterranean, we performed a phylogenetic analysis based on partial sequences of the mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit (16S) gene. Our samples include 31 H. a. aspersa populations from North Africa previously investigated for anatomical and biochemical characters. To clarify subspecific relationships, three individuals of the subspecies H. a. maxima were also studied. The molecular phylogeny inferred agrees largely with previous results, in splitting H. a. aspersa haplotypes into an eastern and a western group. H. a. maxima haplotypes form a third lineage arising before the H. a.aspersa groups. Divergence times estimated between the lineages suggest that dispersal during Pleistocene glaciation and vicariance events due to Pliocene geological changes in the western Mediterranean may both have played a significant part in the establishment of the present range of H. aspersa. [source] Adaptive Units for Conservation: Population Distinction and Historic Extinctions in the Island Scrub-JayCONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Issue 2 2005KATHLEEN S. DELANEY Aphelocoma; diversidad genética especie; endémica; genética de conservación; Islas Channel Abstract:,The Island Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma insularis) is found on Santa Cruz Island, California, and is the only insular bird species in the continental United States. We typed seven microsatellite loci and sequenced a portion of the mitochondrial DNA control region of Island Scrub-Jays and their closest mainland relative, the Western Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma californica), to assess levels of variability and effective population size and to examine the evolutionary relationship between the two species. The estimated female effective population size, Nef, of the Island Scrub-Jay was 1603 (90% confidence interval: 1481,1738) and was about 7.5% of the size of the mainland species. Island and Western Scrub-Jays have highly divergent control-region sequences, and the value of 3.14 ± 0.09% sequence divergence between the two species suggests a divergence time of approximately 151,000 years ago. Because the four northern Channel Islands were joined as one large island as recently as 11,000 years ago, extinctions must have occurred on the three other northern Channel islands, Santa Rosa, San Miguel, and Anacapa, highlighting the vulnerability of the remaining population. We assessed the evolutionary significance of four island endemics, including the Island Scrub-Jay, based on both genetic and adaptive divergence. Our results show that the Island Scrub-Jay is a distinct species of high conservation value whose history and adaptive potential is not well predicted by study of other island vertebrates. Resumen:, Aphelocoma insularis se encuentra en la Isla Santa Cruz, California, y es la única especie de ave insular en Estados Unidos continental. Clasificamos siete locus microsatelitales y secuenciamos una porción de la región control del ADN mitocondrial de A. insularis y su pariente continental más cercano A. californica para evaluar niveles de variabilidad y tamaño poblacional efectivo y examinar las relaciones evolutivas entre las dos especies. El tamaño poblacional efectivo de hembras, Neh, de A. insularis fue estimado en 1603 (90% CI: 1481-1738) y fue aproximadamente 7.5% del tamaño de la especie continental. Aphelocoma insularis y A. californica tienen secuencias muy divergentes en la región control, y el valor de divergencia secuencial de 3.14 ± 0.09% entre las dos especies sugiere un tiempo de divergencia de aproximadamente 151,000 años. Debido a que las cuatro Islas Channel estuvieron unidas en una sola isla tan recientemente como hace 11,000 años, deben haber ocurrido extinciones en las otras tres islas Channel, Santa Rosa, San Miguel y Anacapa, acentuando la vulnerabilidad de la población remanente. Evaluamos el significado evolutivo de cuatro especies insulares endémicas incluyendo A. insularis con base en la divergencia genética y adaptativa. Nuestros resultados muestran que A. insularis es una especie distinta de alto valor de conservación, cuya historia y potencial adaptativo no es pronosticado correctamente por el estudio de otros vertebrados insulares. [source] RAPID SPECIATION FOLLOWING RECENT HOST SHIFTS IN THE PLANT PATHOGENIC FUNGUS RHYNCHOSPORIUMEVOLUTION, Issue 6 2008Pascal L. Zaffarano Agriculture played a significant role in increasing the number of pathogen species and in expanding their geographic range during the last 10,000 years. We tested the hypothesis that a fungal pathogen of cereals and grasses emerged at the time of domestication of cereals in the Fertile Crescent and subsequently speciated after adaptation to its hosts. Rhynchosporium secalis, originally described from rye, causes an important disease on barley called scald, although it also infects other species of Hordeum and Agropyron. Phylogenetic analyses based on four DNA sequence loci identified three host-associated lineages that were confirmed by cross-pathogenicity tests. Bayesian analyses of divergence time suggested that the three lineages emerged between ,1200 to 3600 years before present (B.P.) with a 95% highest posterior density ranging from 100 to 12,000 years B.P. depending on the implemented clock models. The coalescent inference of demographic history revealed a very recent population expansion for all three pathogens. We propose that Rhynchosporium on barley, rye, and Agropyron host species represent three cryptic pathogen species that underwent independent evolution and ecological divergence by host-specialization. We postulate that the recent emergence of these pathogens followed host shifts. The subsequent population expansions followed the expansion of the cultivated host populations and accompanying expansion of the weedy Agropyron spp. found in fields of cultivated cereals. Hence, agriculture played a major role in the emergence of the scald diseases, the adaptation of the pathogens to new hosts and their worldwide dissemination. [source] CALIBRATING A MOLECULAR CLOCK FROM PHYLOGEOGRAPHIC DATA: MOMENTS AND LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATORSEVOLUTION, Issue 10 2003Michael J. Hickerson Abstract We present moments and likelihood methods that estimate a DNA substitution rate from a group of closely related sister species pairs separated at an assumed time, and we test these methods with simulations. The methods also estimate ancestral population size and can test whether there is a significant difference among the ancestral population sizes of the sister species pairs. Estimates presented in the literature often ignore the ancestral coalescent prior to speciation and therefore should be biased upward. The simulations show that both methods yield accurate estimates given sample sizes of five or more species pairs and that better likelihood estimates are obtained if there is no significant difference among ancestral population sizes. The model presented here indicates that the larger than expected variation found in multitaxa datasets can be explained by variation in the ancestral coalescence and the Poisson mutation process. In this context, observed variation can often be accounted for by variation in ancestral population sizes rather than invoking variation in other parameters, such as divergence time or mutation rate. The methods are applied to data from two groups of species pairs (sea urchins and Alpheus snapping shrimp) that are thought to have separated by the rise of Panama three million years ago. [source] PERSPECTIVE: GENE DIVERGENCE, POPULATION DIVERGENCE, AND THE VARIANCE IN COALESCENCE TIME IN PHYLOGEOGRAPHIC STUDIESEVOLUTION, Issue 6 2000ScottV. Abstract Molecular methods as applied to the biogeography of single species (phylogeography) or multiple codistributed species (comparative phylogeography) have been productively and extensively used to elucidate common historical features in the diversification of the Earth's biota. However, only recently have methods for estimating population divergence times or their confidence limits while taking into account the critical effects of genetic polymorphism in ancestral species become available, and earlier methods for doing so are underutilized. We review models that address the crucial distinction between the gene divergence, the parameter that is typically recovered in molecular phylogeographic studies, and the population divergence, which is in most cases the parameter of interest and will almost always postdate the gene divergence. Assuming that population sizes of ancestral species are distributed similarly to those of extant species, we show that phylogeographic studies in vertebrates suggest that divergence of alleles in ancestral species can comprise from less than 10% to over 50% of the total divergence between sister species, suggesting that the problem of ancestral polymorphism in dating population divergence can be substantial. The variance in the number of substitutions (among loci for a given species or among species for a given gene) resulting from the stochastic nature of DNA change is generally smaller than the variance due to substitutions along allelic lines whose coalescence times vary due to genetic drift in the ancestral population. Whereas the former variance can be reduced by further DNA sequencing at a single locus, the latter cannot. Contrary to phylogeographic intuition, dating population divergence times when allelic lines have achieved reciprocal monophyly is in some ways more challenging than when allelic lines have not achieved monophyly, because in the former case critical data on ancestral population size provided by residual ancestral polymorphism is lost. In the former case differences in coalescence time between species pairs can in principle be explained entirely by differences in ancestral population size without resorting to explanations involving differences in divergence time. Furthermore, the confidence limits on population divergence times are severely underestimated when those for number of substitutions per site in the DNA sequences examined are used as a proxy. This uncertainty highlights the importance of multilocus data in estimating population divergence times; multilocus data can in principle distinguish differences in coalescence time (T) resulting from differences in population divergence time and differences in T due to differences in ancestral population sizes and will reduce the confidence limits on the estimates. We analyze the contribution of ancestral population size (,) to T and the effect of uncertainty in , on estimates of population divergence (,) for single loci under reciprocal monophyly using a simple Bayesian extension of Takahata and Satta's and Yang's recent coalescent methods. The confidence limits on , decrease when the range over which ancestral population size , is assumed to be distributed decreases and when increases; they generally exclude zero when /(4Ne) > 1. We also apply a maximum-likelihood method to several single and multilocus data sets. With multilocus data, the criterion for excluding = 0 is roughly that l/(4Ne)> 1, where l is the number of loci. Our analyses corroborate recent suggestions that increasing the number of loci is critical to decreasing the uncertainty in estimates of population divergence time. [source] Characterizing the phylogenetic structure of communities by an additive partitioning of phylogenetic diversityJOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, Issue 3 2007OLIVIER J. HARDY Summary 1Analysing the phylogenetic structure of natural communities may illuminate the processes governing the assembly and coexistence of species in ecological communities. 2Unifying previous works, we present a statistical framework to quantify the phylogenetic structure of communities in terms of average divergence time between pairs of individuals or species, sampled from different sites. This framework allows an additive partitioning of the phylogenetic signal into alpha (within-site) and beta (among-site) components, and is closely linked to Simpson diversity. It unifies the treatment of intraspecific (genetic) and interspecific diversity, leading to the definition of differentiation coefficients among community samples (e.g. IST, PST) analogous to classical population genetics coefficients expressing differentiation among populations (e.g. FST, NST). 3Two coefficients which express community differentiation among sites from species identity (IST) or species phylogeny (PST) require abundance data (number of individuals per species per site), and estimators that are unbiased with respect to sample size are given. Another coefficient (,ST) expresses the gain of the mean phylogenetic distance between species found in different sites compared with species found within sites, and requires only incidence data (presence/absence of each species in each site). 4We present tests based on phylogenetic tree randomizations to detect community phylogenetic clustering (PST > IST or ,ST > 0) or phylogenetic overdispersion (PST < IST or ,ST < 0). In addition, we propose a novel approach to detect phylogenetic clustering or overdispersion in different clades or at different evolutionary time depths using partial randomizations. 5IST, PST or ,ST can also be used as distances between community samples and regressed on ecological or geographical distances, allowing us to investigate the factors responsible for the phylogenetic signal and the critical scales at which it appears. 6We illustrate the approach on forest tree communities in Equatorial Guinea, where a phylogenetic clustering signal was probably due to phylogenetically conserved adaptations to the elevation gradient and was mostly contributed to by ancient clade subdivisions. 7The approach presented should find applications for comparing quantitatively phylogenetic patterns of different communities, of similar communities in different regions or continents, or of populations (within species) vs. communities (among species). [source] Effects of recent population bottlenecks on reconstructing the demographic history of prairie-chickensMOLECULAR ECOLOGY, Issue 11 2007JEFF A. JOHNSON Abstract Current methods of DNA sequence analysis attempt to reconstruct historical patterns of population structure and growth from contemporary samples. However, these techniques may be influenced by recent population bottlenecks, which have the potential to eliminate lineages that reveal past changes in demography. One way to examine the performance of these demographic methods is to compare samples from populations before and after recent bottlenecks. We compared estimates of demographic history from populations of greater prairie-chickens (Tympanuchus cupido) before and after recent bottlenecks using four common methods (nested clade analysis [NCA], Tajima's D, mismatch distribution, and mdiv). We found that NCA did not perform well in the presence of bottleneck events, although it did recover some genetic signals associated with increased isolation and the extinction of intermediate populations. The majority of estimates for Tajima's D, including those from bottlenecked populations, were not significantly different from zero, suggesting our data conformed to neutral expectations. In contrast, mismatch distributions including the raggedness index were more likely to identify recently bottlenecked populations with this data set. Estimates of population mutation rate (,), population divergence time (t), and time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) from mdiv were similar before and after bottlenecks; however, estimates of gene flow (M) were significantly lower in a few cases following a bottleneck. These results suggest that caution should be used when assessing demographic history from contemporary data sets, as recently fragmented and bottlenecked populations may have lost lineages that affect inferences of their demographic history. [source] Genetic divergence does not predict change in ornament expression among populations of stalk-eyed fliesMOLECULAR ECOLOGY, Issue 12 2005JOHN G. SWALLOW Abstract Stalk-eyed flies (Diptera: Diopsidae) possess eyes at the ends of elongated peduncles, and exhibit dramatic variation in eye span, relative to body length, among species. In some sexually dimorphic species, evidence indicates that eye span is under both intra- and intersexual selection. Theory predicts that isolated populations should evolve differences in sexually selected traits due to drift. To determine if eye span changes as a function of divergence time, 1370 flies from 10 populations of the sexually dimorphic species, Cyrtodiopsis dalmanni and Cyrtodiopsis whitei, and one population of the sexually monomorphic congener, Cyrtodiopsis quinqueguttata, were collected from Southeast Asia and measured. Genetic differentiation was used to assess divergence time by comparing mitochondrial (cytochrome oxidase II and 16S ribosomal RNA gene fragments) and nuclear (wingless gene fragment) DNA sequences for c. five individuals per population. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that most populations cluster as monophyletic units with up to 9% nucleotide substitutions between populations within a species. Analyses of molecular variance suggest a high degree of genetic structure within and among the populations; > 97% of the genetic variance occurs between populations and species while < 3% is distributed within populations, indicating that most populations have been isolated for thousands of years. Nevertheless, significant change in the allometric slope of male eye span on body length was detected for only one population of either dimorphic species. These results are not consistent with genetic drift. Rather, relative eye span appears to be under net stabilizing selection in most populations of stalk-eyed flies. Given that one population exhibited dramatic evolutionary change, selection, rather than genetic variation, appears to constrain eye span evolution. [source] Deep genetic divergences among morphologically similar and parapatric Skistodiaptomus (Copepoda: Calanoida: Diaptomidae) challenge the hypothesis of Pleistocene speciationBIOLOGICAL JOURNAL OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, Issue 1 2009RYAN A. THUM We used mitochondrial [cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CO I), cytochrome b, and 16S] and nuclear [internal transcribed spacer (ITS) phylogenies of Skistodiaptomus copepods to test hypotheses of Pleistocene divergence and speciation within the genus. Mitochondrial (mt)DNA sequence divergences do not support hypotheses for Pleistocene speciation and instead suggest much more ancient speciation events in the genus. Skistodiaptomus oregonensis and Skistodiaptomus pygmaeus (i.e. two morphologically similar and parapatric species) exhibited uncorrected mtDNA sequence divergences exceeding 20%. Similarly, we identified three divergent clades of Skistodiaptomus pallidus that exhibited mtDNA sequence divergences exceeding 15%, suggesting that even intraspecific divergence within this morphospecies predates the Pleistocene. We found clear evidence of CO I pseudogenes in S. pygmaeus, but their presence did not lead to significant overestimates of sequence divergences for this gene. Substitution saturation and strong purifying selection have most likely led to underestimates of sequence divergences and divergence times among Skistodiaptomus. The widespread phenomenon of morphological stasis among genetically divergent copepod groups indicates that speciation often occurs with little or no morphological change. Instead, morphological evolution may occur idiosyncratically after speciation and create discordant patterns of morphological similarity, shared ancestry and divergence time. Cryptic species complexes are therefore common in copepods, and morphological species concepts underestimate their true species diversity. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 96, 150,165. [source] Combining Biogeographic and Phylogenetic Data to Examine Primate Speciation: An Example Using Cercopithecin MonkeysBIOTROPICA, Issue 4 2009Jason M. Kamilar ABSTRACT We combined phylogenetic and biogeographic data to examine the mode of speciation in a group of African monkeys, the Cercopithecini. If allopatric speciation is the major force producing species, then there should be a positive relationship between the relative divergence time of taxa and their degree of geographic range overlap. Alternatively, an opposite relationship between divergence time and geographic range overlap is consistent with sympatric speciation as the main mechanism underlying the cercopithecin radiation. We collected biogeographic and phylogenetic data for 19 guenon species from the literature. We digitized geographic range maps and utilized three different phylogenetic hypotheses based on Y chromosome, X chromosome, and mitochondrial (mtDNA) data. We used regressions with Monte Carlo simulation to examine the relationship between the relative time since divergence of taxa and their degree of geographic range overlap. We found that there was a positive relationship between relative divergence time and the proportion of geographic range overlap between taxa using all three molecular data sets. Our findings provide evidence for allopatric speciation being the common mode of diversification in the cercopithecin clade. Because most of these primates are forest adapted mammals, the cyclical contraction and expansion of African forests from the late Miocene to the present has likely been an important factor driving allopatric speciation. In addition, geographic barriers such as the Congo and Sanaga rivers have probably played a complementary role in producing new species within the clade. [source] DOMESTICATION OF MAIZE, SORGHUM, AND SUGARCANE DID NOT DRIVE THE DIVERGENCE OF THEIR SMUT PATHOGENSEVOLUTION, Issue 2 2007Andrew B. Munkacsi We investigated two alternative hypotheses for the origin of crop pathogen species: that human-mediated agricultural practices drove the divergence of many crop plant pathogen species or that coevolutionary processes in natural populations of the crops' ancestors drove divergence of pathogen species. We distinguished between these two hypotheses by constructing a robust multigene phylogeny and estimating the dates of divergence among four, monophyletic species of smut fungi (Ustilago maydis, U. scitaminea, Sporisorium reilianum, S. sorghi) known to specifically infect maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and their wild ancestors. Without a fossil record for smut fungi, we calibrated the pathogen species' divergence times to their plant host divergence times. Specifically, a calibration date of 10,000 years was employed to test the hypothesis that the fungal species originated at the time of domestication of their current hosts and a calibration date of 50 million years was employed to test the hypothesis that the fungal species originated on wild ancestors of their domesticated hosts. Substitution rates at five protein coding genes were calculated and rates obtained for the 10,000 year calibration date were orders of magnitude faster than those commonly reported for eukaryotes, thus rejecting the hypothesis that these smut pathogen species diverged at the time of domestication. In contrast, substitution rates obtained for the 50 million year calibration were comparable to eukaryotic substitution rates. We used the 50 million year calibration to estimate divergence times of taxa in two datasets, one comprised solely the focal species and one comprised the focal species and additional related taxa. Both datasets indicate that all taxa diverged millions of years ago, strongly supporting the hypothesis that smut species diverged before the time of domestication and modern agriculture. Thus, smut species diverged in the ecological context of natural host plant and fungal populations. [source] EVOLUTION OF SUBTERRANEAN DIVING BEETLES (COLEOPTERA: DYTISCIDAE HYDROPORINI, BIDESSINI) IN THE ARID ZONE OF AUSTRALIAEVOLUTION, Issue 12 2003Remko Leys Abstract Calcrete aquifers in arid inland Australia have recently been found to contain the world's most diverse assemblage of subterranean diving beetles (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae). In this study we test whether the adaptive shift hypothesis (ASH) or the climatic relict hypothesis (CRH) is the most likely mode of evolution for the Australian subterranean diving beetles by using a phylogeny based on two sequenced fragments of mitochondrial genes (CO1 and 16S-tRNA-ND1) and linearized using a relaxed molecular clock method. Most individual calcrete aquifers contain an assemblage of diving beetle species of distantly related lineages and/or a single pair of sister species that significantly differ in size and morphology. Evolutionary transitions from surface to subterranean life took place in a relatively small time frame between nine and four million years ago. Most of the variation in divergence times of the sympatric sister species is explained by the variation in latitude of the localities, which correlates with the onset of aridity from the north to the south and with an aridity maximum in the Early Pliocene (five mya). We conclude that individual calcrete aquifers were colonized by several distantly related diving beetle lineages. Several lines of evidence from molecular clock analyses support the CRH, indicating that all evolutionary transitions took place during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene as a result of aridification. [source] TIME TO THE MOST RECENT COMMON ANCESTOR AND DIVERGENCE TIMES OF POPULATIONS OF COMMON CHAFFINCHES (FRINGILLA COELEBS) IN EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA: INSIGHTS INTO PLEISTOCENE REFUGIA AND CURRENT LEVELS OF MIGRATIONEVOLUTION, Issue 1 2002Cortland K. Griswold Abstract We analyzed sequences from a 275-bp hypervariable region in the 5, end of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 190 common chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) from 19 populations in Europe and North Africa, including new samples from Greece and Morocco. Coalescent techniques were applied to estimate the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) and divergence times of these populations. The first objective of this study was to infer the locations of refugia where chaffinches survived the last glacial episode, and this was achieved by estimating the TMRCA of populations in regions surrounding the Mediterranean that were unglaciated in the late Pleistocene. Although extant populations in Iberia, Corsica, Greece, and North Africa harbor haplotypes that are basal in a phylogenetic tree, this information alone cannot be used to infer that these localities served as refugia, because it is impossible to infer the ages of populations and their divergence times without also considering the population genetic processes of mutation, migration, and drift. Provided we assume the TMRCAs of populations are a reasonable estimate of a population's age, coalescent-based methods place resident populations in Iberia, Corsica, Greece, and North Africa during the time of the last glacial maximum, suggesting these regions served as refugia for the common chaffinch. The second objective was to determine when populations began diverging from each other and to use this as a baseline to estimate current levels of gene flow. Divergence time estimates suggest that European populations began diverging about 60,000 years before present. The relatively recent divergence of populations in North Africa, Italy, and Iberia may explain why classic migration estimates based on equilibrium assumptions are high for these populations. We compare these estimates with nonequilibrium-based estimates and show that the nonequilibrium estimates are consistently lower than the equilibrium estimates. [source] PERSPECTIVE: GENE DIVERGENCE, POPULATION DIVERGENCE, AND THE VARIANCE IN COALESCENCE TIME IN PHYLOGEOGRAPHIC STUDIESEVOLUTION, Issue 6 2000ScottV. Abstract Molecular methods as applied to the biogeography of single species (phylogeography) or multiple codistributed species (comparative phylogeography) have been productively and extensively used to elucidate common historical features in the diversification of the Earth's biota. However, only recently have methods for estimating population divergence times or their confidence limits while taking into account the critical effects of genetic polymorphism in ancestral species become available, and earlier methods for doing so are underutilized. We review models that address the crucial distinction between the gene divergence, the parameter that is typically recovered in molecular phylogeographic studies, and the population divergence, which is in most cases the parameter of interest and will almost always postdate the gene divergence. Assuming that population sizes of ancestral species are distributed similarly to those of extant species, we show that phylogeographic studies in vertebrates suggest that divergence of alleles in ancestral species can comprise from less than 10% to over 50% of the total divergence between sister species, suggesting that the problem of ancestral polymorphism in dating population divergence can be substantial. The variance in the number of substitutions (among loci for a given species or among species for a given gene) resulting from the stochastic nature of DNA change is generally smaller than the variance due to substitutions along allelic lines whose coalescence times vary due to genetic drift in the ancestral population. Whereas the former variance can be reduced by further DNA sequencing at a single locus, the latter cannot. Contrary to phylogeographic intuition, dating population divergence times when allelic lines have achieved reciprocal monophyly is in some ways more challenging than when allelic lines have not achieved monophyly, because in the former case critical data on ancestral population size provided by residual ancestral polymorphism is lost. In the former case differences in coalescence time between species pairs can in principle be explained entirely by differences in ancestral population size without resorting to explanations involving differences in divergence time. Furthermore, the confidence limits on population divergence times are severely underestimated when those for number of substitutions per site in the DNA sequences examined are used as a proxy. This uncertainty highlights the importance of multilocus data in estimating population divergence times; multilocus data can in principle distinguish differences in coalescence time (T) resulting from differences in population divergence time and differences in T due to differences in ancestral population sizes and will reduce the confidence limits on the estimates. We analyze the contribution of ancestral population size (,) to T and the effect of uncertainty in , on estimates of population divergence (,) for single loci under reciprocal monophyly using a simple Bayesian extension of Takahata and Satta's and Yang's recent coalescent methods. The confidence limits on , decrease when the range over which ancestral population size , is assumed to be distributed decreases and when increases; they generally exclude zero when /(4Ne) > 1. We also apply a maximum-likelihood method to several single and multilocus data sets. With multilocus data, the criterion for excluding = 0 is roughly that l/(4Ne)> 1, where l is the number of loci. Our analyses corroborate recent suggestions that increasing the number of loci is critical to decreasing the uncertainty in estimates of population divergence time. [source] THE EFFECTS OF SUBDIVISION ON THE GENETIC DIVERGENCE OF POPULATIONS AND SPECIESEVOLUTION, Issue 4 2000John Wakeley Abstract. An island model of migration is used to study the effects of subdivision within populations and species on sample genealogies and on between-population or between-species measures of genetic variation. The model assumes that the number of demes within each population or species is large. When populations (or species), connected either by gene flow or historical association, are themselves subdivided into demes, changes in the migration rate among demes alter both the structure of genealogies and the time scale of the coalescent process. The time scale of the coalescent is related to the effective size of the population, which depends on the migration rate among demes. When the migration rate among demes within populations is low, isolation (or speciation) events seem more recent and migration rates among populations seem higher because the effective size of each population is increased. This affects the probability of reciprocal monophyly of two samples, the chance that a gene tree of a sample matches the species tree, and relative likelihoods of different types of polymorphic sites. It can also have a profound effect on the estimation of divergence times. [source] Timing primate evolution: Lessons from the discordance between molecular and paleontological estimatesEVOLUTIONARY ANTHROPOLOGY, Issue 4 2008M. E. Steiper Abstract The molecular clock has become an increasingly important tool in evolutionary biology and biological anthropology. Nevertheless, a source of contention with respect to this method is the frequent discordance with fossil-based estimates of divergence times. The primate radiation is a case in point: Numerous studies have dated the major primate nodes (reviewed in Steiper and Young,1, 2) and there are many instances where molecular and fossil-based estimates of divergence times differ (Fig. 1). Some investigators have recently focused on phenomena such as stratigraphic dating, the stochastic nature of molecular time estimates, and other sources as potential biases in molecular clock estimates.3, 4 In this paper we do not focus on accuracy or statistical error; rather, we argue that discordance is a predictable phenomenon that provides valuable information about the tempo and mode of primate molecular and morphological evolution. Using this perspective, we reexamine the principal theoretical and methodological factors that lead to discordance between molecular and fossil estimates of the origins of taxa and discuss how a better understanding of these factors can help to improve our understanding of primate evolution. [source] Population variability in Chironomus (Camptochironomus) species (Diptera, Nematocera) with a Holarctic distribution: evidence of mitochondrial gene flowINSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, Issue 5 2002J. Martin Abstract Phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences from mitochondrial (mt) genes (Cytochrome b and Cytochrome oxidase I) and one nuclear gene (globin 2b) was used for the investigation of Nearctic and Palearctic populations representing four Chironomus species of the subgenus Camptochironomus, namely C. biwaprimus, C. pallidivittatus, C. tentans sensu stricto and C. dilutus (the last two species constitute Holarctic C. tentans sensu lato). Phenograms constructed on the basis of mt sequences were not congruent with trees based on nuclear genes, or with morphological and cytological data. The mt tree divided the populations by continental region, rather than by the species groupings recognized by the other data sets. The incongruence is explained by mt gene flow resulting from hybridization between the sympatric species on each continent. Calculation of divergence times, based on the sequence data, suggest that C. tentans (s.l.) and C. pallidivittatus have both been in North America for about 2.5 My. [source] Phylogeographic analysis detects congruent biogeographic patterns between a woodland agamid and Australian wet tropics taxa despite disparate evolutionary trajectoriesJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 8 2010Danielle L. Edwards Abstract Aim, To test the congruence of phylogeographic patterns and processes between a woodland agamid lizard (Diporiphora australis) and well-studied Australian wet tropics fauna. Specifically, to determine whether the biogeographic history of D. australis is more consistent with a history of vicariance, which is common in wet tropics fauna, or with a history of dispersal with expansion, which would be expected for species occupying woodland habitats that expanded with the increasingly drier conditions in eastern Australia during the Miocene,Pleistocene. Location, North-eastern Australia. Methods, Field-collected and museum tissue samples from across the entire distribution of D. australis were used to compile a comprehensive phylo-geographic dataset based on c. 1400 bp of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), incorporating the ND2 protein-coding gene. We used phylogenetic methods to assess biogeographic patterns within D. australis and relaxed molecular clock analyses were conducted to estimate divergence times. Hierarchical Shimodaira,Hasegawa tests were used to test alternative topologies representing vicariant, dispersal and mixed dispersal/vicariant biogeographic hypotheses. Phylogenetic analyses were combined with phylogeographic analyses to gain an insight into the evolutionary processes operating within D. australis. Results, Phylogenetic analyses identified six major mtDNA clades within D. australis, with phylogeographic patterns closely matching those seen in many wet tropics taxa. Congruent phylogeographic breaks were observed across the Black Mountain Corridor, Burdekin and St Lawrence Gaps. Divergence amongst clades was found to decrease in a north,south direction, with a trend of increasing population expansion in the south. Main conclusions, While phylogeographic patterns in D australis reflect those seen in many rain forest fauna of the wet tropics, the evolutionary processes underlying these patterns appear to be very different. Our results support a history of sequential colonization of D. australis from north to south across major biogeographic barriers from the late Miocene,Pleistocene. These patterns are most likely in response to expanding woodland habitats. Our results strengthen the data available for this iconic region in Australia by exploring the understudied woodland habitats. In addition, our study shows the importance of thorough investigations of not only the biogeographic patterns displayed by species but also the evolutionary processes underlying such patterns. [source] The effect of environmental diversification on species diversification in New Caledonian caddisflies (Insecta: Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae)JOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 5 2010Marianne Espeland Abstract Aim, To test whether environmental diversification played a role in the diversification of the New Caledonian Hydropsychinae caddisflies. Location, New Caledonia, south-west Pacific. Methods, The phylogeny of the New Caledonian Hydropsychinae caddisflies was hypothesized using parsimony and Bayesian methods on molecular characters. The Bayesian analysis was the basis for a comparative analysis of the correlation between phylogeny and three environmental factors: geological substrate (ultrabasic, non-ultrabasic), elevation and precipitation. Phylogenetic divergence times were estimated using a relaxed clock method, and environmental factors were mapped onto a lineage-through-time plot to investigate the timing of environmental diversification in relation to species radiation. The correlation between rainfall and elevation was tested using independent contrasts, and the gamma statistic was calculated to infer the diversification pattern of the group. Results, The diversification of extant Orthopsyche,Caledopsyche species began in the Middle,Late Oligocene, when much of the island of New Caledonia was covered by ultrabasic substrate and mountain forming was prevalent. Most lineages originated in the Middle,Late Miocene, a period associated with long-term climate oscillation. Optimization of environmental factors on the phylogeny demonstrated that the New Caledonian Hydropsychinae group adapted to ultrabasic substrate early in its evolutionary history. The clade living mostly on ultrabasic substrate was far more species-rich than the clade living mostly on non-ultrabasic substrate. Elevation and rainfall were significantly correlated with each other. The lineage-through-time plot revealed that the main environmental diversification preceded species diversification. A constant speciation through time was rejected, and the negative gamma indicates that most of the diversification occurred early in the history of the clade. According to the inferred phylogeny, the genus Orthopsyche McFarlane is a synonym under Caledopsyche Kimmins, and Abacaria caledona Oláh & Barnard should also be included in Caledopsyche. Main conclusions, The age of the radiation does not support a vicariance origin of New Caledonian Hydropsychinae caddisflies. Environmental diversification pre-dates lineage diversification, and thus environmental heterogeneity potentially played a role in the diversification of the group, by providing a variety of fragmented habitats to disperse into, promoting speciation. The negative gamma indicates that the speciation rate slowed as niches started to fill. [source] Speciation chronology of rockhopper penguins inferred from molecular, geological and palaeoceanographic dataJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 4 2009Marc De Dinechin Abstract Aim, The Southern Ocean is split into several biogeographical provinces between convergence zones that separate watermasses of different temperatures. Recent molecular phylogenies have uncovered a strong phylogeographic structure among rockhopper penguin populations, Eudyptes chrysocome sensu lato, from different biogeographical provinces. These studies suggested a reclassification as three species in two major clades, corresponding, respectively, to warm, subtropical and cold sub-Antarctic watermasses rather than to geographic proximity. Such a phylogeographic pattern, also observed in plants, invertebrates and fishes of the Southern Ocean, suggests that past changes in the positions of watermasses may have affected the evolutionary history of penguins. We calculated divergence times among various rockhopper penguin clades and calibrated these data with palaeomagmatic and palaeoceanographic events to generate a speciation chronology in rockhopper penguins. Location, Southern Ocean. Methods, Divergence times between populations were calculated using five distinct mitochondrial DNA loci, and assuming a molecular clock model as implemented in mdiv. The molecular evolution rate of rockhopper penguins was calibrated using the radiochronological age of St Paul Island and Amsterdam Island in the southern Indian Ocean. Separations within other clades were correlated with palaeoceanographic data using this calibrated rate. Results, The split between the Atlantic and Indian populations of rockhopper penguins was dated as 0.25 Ma, using the date of emergence of St Paul and Amsterdam islands, and the divergence between sub-Antarctic and subtropical rockhopper penguins was dated as c. 0.9 Ma (i.e. during the mid-Pleistocene transition, a major change in the Earth's climate cycles). Main conclusions, The mid-Pleistocene transition is known to have caused a major southward shift in watermasses in the Southern Ocean, thus changing the environment around the northernmost rockhopper penguin breeding sites. This ecological isolation of northernmost populations may have caused vicariant speciation, splitting the species into two major clades. After the emergence of St Paul and Amsterdam islands in the subtropical Indian Ocean 0.25 Ma, these islands were colonized by penguins from the subtropical Atlantic, 6000 km away, rather than by penguins from the sub-Antarctic Indian Ocean, 5000 km closer. [source] Comparative phylogeography of pitvipers suggests a consensus of ancient Middle American highland biogeographyJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 1 2009Todd A. Castoe Abstract Aim, We used inferences of phylogenetic relationships and divergence times for three lineages of highland pitvipers to identify broad-scale historical events that have shaped the evolutionary history of Middle American highland taxa, and to test previous hypotheses of Neotropical speciation. Location, Middle America (Central America and Mexico). Methods, We used 2306 base pairs of mitochondrial gene sequences from 178 individuals to estimate the phylogeny and divergence times of New World pitviper lineages, focusing on three genera (Atropoides, Bothriechis and Cerrophidion) that are broadly co-distributed across Middle American highlands. Results, We found strong correspondence across three highland lineages for temporally and geographically coincident divergences in the Miocene and Pliocene, and further identified widespread within-species divergences across multiple lineages that occurred in the early,middle Pleistocene. Main conclusions, Available data suggest that there were at least three major historical events in Middle America that had broad impacts on species divergence and lineage diversification among highland taxa. In addition, we find widespread within-species genetic structure that may be attributable to the climatic changes that affected gene flow among highland taxa during the middle,late Pleistocene. [source] Biogeography and molecular phylogeny of the genus Schizothorax (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) in China inferred from cytochrome b sequencesJOURNAL OF BIOGEOGRAPHY, Issue 8 2006Dekui He Abstract Aim, To test a vicariant speciation hypothesis derived from geological evidence of large-scale changes in drainage patterns in the late Miocene that affected the drainages in the south-eastern Tibetan Plateau. Location, The Tibetan Plateau and adjacent areas. Methods, The cytochrome b DNA sequences of 30 species of the genus Schizothorax from nine different river systems were analysed. These DNA sequences were analysed using parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. The approximately unbiased and Shimodaira,Hasegawa tests were applied to evaluate the statistical significance of the shortest trees relative to alternative hypotheses. Dates of divergences between lineages were estimated using the nonparametric rate smoothing method, and confidence intervals of dates were obtained by parametric bootstrapping. Results, The phylogenetic relationships recovered from molecular data were inconsistent with traditional taxonomy, but apparently reflected geographical associations with rivers. Within the genus Schizothorax, we observed a divergence between the lineages from the Irrawaddy,Lhuit and Tsangpo,Parlung rivers, and tentatively dated this vicariant event back to the late Miocene (7.3,6.8 Ma). We also observed approximately simultaneous geographical splits within drainages of the south-eastern Tibetan Plateau, the Irrawaddy, the Yangtze and the Mekong,Salween rivers in the late Miocene (7.1,6.2 Ma). Main conclusions, Our molecular evidence tentatively highlights the importance of palaeoriver connections and the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau in understanding the evolution of the genus Schizothorax. Molecular estimates of divergence times allowed us to date these vicariant scenarios back to the late Miocene, which agrees with geological suggestions for the separation of these drainages caused by tectonic uplift in south-eastern Tibet. Our results indicated the substantial role of vicariant-based speciation in shaping the current distribution pattern of the genus Schizothorax. [source] Morphological characterization of the testicular cells and seminiferous epithelium cycle in six species of Neotropical batsJOURNAL OF MORPHOLOGY, Issue 8 2009Mateus R. Beguelini Abstract We know little about the process of spermatogenesis in bats, a great and diverse clade of mammals that presents different reproductive strategies. In the present study, spermatogenesis in six species of Neotropical bats was investigated by light microscopy. On the basis of chromatin condensation, nuclear morphology, relative position to the basal membrane and formation of the flagellum, three types of spermatogonia were recognized: dark type A (Ad), pale type A (Ap), and type B; the development of spermatids was divided into seven steps. With the exception of Myotis nigricans, the seminiferous epithelium cycle of the other five species studied was similar to those of other mammals, showing gradual stages by the tubular morphology method. Asynchrony was observed in the seminiferous epithelium cycle of M. nigricans, shown by overlapping stages and undefined cycles. The frequencies found in the three phases of the cycle were variable with the greatest frequency occurring in the postmeiotic phase (>50%) and the least in the meiotic phase (<10%). The similarities observed in the five species of Phyllostomidae appeared to be related to their phylogenetic relationship and shorter divergence times, whereas the differences in M. nigricans appeared to be related to its greater phylogenetic distance because the Vespertilionidae family diverged earlier. J. Morphol., 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [source] Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Leibnitzia Cass. (Asteraceae: Mutisieae: Gerbera -complex), an Asian,North American disjunct genusJOURNAL OF SYSTEMATICS EVOLUTION, Issue 3 2010Kristen E. BAIRD Abstract Leibnitzia comprises six species of perennial herbs that are adapted to high elevation conditions and is one of only two Asteraceae genera known to have an exclusively disjunct distribution spanning central to eastern Asia and North America. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Leibnitzia and other Gerbera -complex members indicates that Leibnitzia is monophyletic, which is in contrast with our expectation that the American Leibnitzia species L. lyrata and L. occimadrensis would be more closely related to another American member of the Gerbera -complex, namely Chaptalia. Ancestral area reconstructions show that the historical biogeography of the Gerbera -complex mirrors that of the entire Asteraceae, with early diverging lineages located in South America that were followed by transfers to Africa and Eurasia and, most recently, to North America. Intercontinental transfer of Leibnitzia appears to have been directed from Asia to North America. Independent calibrations of nuclear (ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer region) and chloroplast (trnL,rpl32 intron) DNA sequence data using relaxed clock methods and either mean rate or fossil-based priors unanimously support Miocene and younger divergence times for Gerbera -complex taxa. The ages are not consistent with most Gondwanan vicariance episodes and, thus, the global distribution of Gerbera -complex members must be explained in large part by long-distance dispersal. American species of Leibnitzia are estimated to have diverged from their Asian ancestor during the Quaternary (ca. 2 mya) and either migrated overland to North America via Beringia and retreated southwards along high elevation corridors to their present location in southwestern North America or were dispersed long distance. [source] |